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Research Paper SPA 2612: WEB-ENHANCEMENTS AS AN AID TO LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
SPA 2612: Web-enhancements as an aid to language acquisition
Alysse Lemery Rasmussen Chadron State College Western Governors University Valencia Community College
ABSTRACT SPA 2612, American Sign Language I, is an introductory foreign/second language course at Valencia Community College in Orlando, FL where?. More time needs to be devoted to target language (TL) activities without compromising the cultural, historical, and linguistic components of the course. The researcher/instructor will use four sections of SPA 2612 to evaluate technological enhancements. Data will be collected at regular intervals, regarding the access, content, and retention. The researcher/instructor will maintain a log charting TL usage in the classroom. Students/stakeholders will be asked to provide detailed feedback. Data from this action research project will be compared with data from an earlier project (2002). It is expected that students will respond positively to a web-enhanced component designed to deliver assessments and readings outside the traditional classroom environment. Insert page break after the abstract, then include a table of contents before beginning the introduction.
table of contents
SPA 2612, American Sign Language I, is an introductory second language course offered by Valencia Community College in Orlando, Florida. Class meets twice a week and each session is 1 hour and 15 minutes in length. By the time roll is completed (5 minutes) and daily assessment checks are administered and reviewed (15 minutes) only 55 minutes of class time is left. After allowing another 5 minutes for wrap-up, the amount of "teachable" time is just 50 minutes. Like most introductory second language courses, approximately 30% percent of content is devoted to cultural and historical information (15 minutes), 20% percent to linguistics (10 minutes), and 50% percent to communicative activities (25 minutes). Often the linguistic and cultural content is presented in the learner’s primary or native language (L1 or NL). This means that learners may be exposed to the target or second language (TL or L2) for as few as 25 minutes per session.
There is a need to increase TL use in the classroom without compromising the cultural, historical, and linguistic components of the course.
Very little literature exists concerning the teaching of American Sign Language. What little literature there is seems to devote itself to first language acquisition rather than second or foreign language acquisition. Therefore, much of the literature reviewed for this action research project has been taken from general second language acquisition studies. Recent brain research studies attest to the fact that older language learners can benefit from a two-way learning process that allows for both a top-down (complex to simple) and bottom-up (simple to complex) approach. "Higher order brain centers … can activate and interact with lower order centers" (Genesee, 2000). The reverse is true as well. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), an interactive view of language teaching, demonstrates that proficiency is more likely to occur when learners communicate in the target language,
Teaching Vocabulary & Communicative Competencies
In fact, all of the literature reviewed (Brown, 1996; CREDE, 1997; Dulay, 1982; Krashen, 1983, 1985; Lee & VanPatten, 1995; Lee, 2000; Ommagio-Hadley, 1993) agrees that vocabulary is best taught, and learned, in context. Vocabulary is acquired (and retained) when it appears in familiar, real-world, complex contexts. Exposure to the TL and time to practice are the true indicators of linguistic competency. Sherman Wilcox (1991) indicates that ASL students, more so than traditional second language students, need to unlearn a number of myths and misconceptions, i.e. sign language is universal, iconic, glorified gestures, concrete, ungrammatical, etc. In order to debunk these myths effectively, students need a safe environment in which they can ask questions. Teaching Cultural & Linguistic Competencies
Kramsch (1996) indicates language acquisition does not begin and end with TL usage. Linguistic and cultural issues play a key role in the learner’s ability to manipulate and understand critical communicative elements. Oxford (1994) insists that social and affective learning must march hand in hand with intellectual learning. Willing (1988), as quoted in Oxford (1989) views learning style as "inherent and pervasive" and argues, as does Walqui (2000), that differentiation and individualization of instruction is necessary. Continuing in that vein, Willing states that effective language learning strategies include: metacognitive, affective, social, cognitive, and coping skills. These tactics, accompanied by explanations and reference materials, are most effective when taught within the context of regular classroom activities. Teaching Self-Assessment Competencies
One significant way to apply metacognitive strategies is for learners to evaluate themselves (Thanasoulas, 2002). However, just a few months earlier Anderson (2002) argues that research shows that many learners are unable to accurately assess themselves without explicit instruction.
Is it possible to increase TL usage in the classroom and still maintain the ability to provide explicit instruction in the areas of linguistics and culture? One possible solution lies in the use of technologies such as multimedia, compact disks (CDs), and/or web-enhanced technologies such as Atlas or WebCT. According to Burnett (1994) and Sile (1998) good technology programs are defined as those which emphasize cooperative learning, higher-level problem solving skills, interaction between students and teachers, and demonstrate adaptability to a variety of learning styles. What Burnett and Sile do not address is whether or not the new technology itself might be the reason that the results were higher. This is an important consideration since Newby (1996) indicate that new technologies, when first introduced, can have a positive impact just because of their novelty. Roblyer (1989), in a very early review of the literature, reports that computer applications appear to have a statistically significant effect on many areas of learning, especially in areas involving language skills and problem solving activities. He specifically notes that the effect was greater at the college and adult levels, but warns that while many studies discussed the potential for improved self-esteem for computer users, very little real research actually exists on learner attitudes.
A number of articles (Marcos, 1994; Sile, 1998; LeLoup & Ponterio, 2000, Paulsen, 2000) point out that technology, especially the World Wide Web (WWW) is an efficient and readily accomplished means of expanding the curriculum, incorporating contributions of diverse cultures, and allowing students to synthesize large quantities of information via authentic materials and scholarly works. LeLoup & Ponterio (2000) both conclude that web course management software such as WebCT or Blackboard can be used to supplement, support, and extend the traditional classroom format. Spithill, as quoted in Stone (1991) does argue that task-based activities lower affective filter. There is also, according to Marshall (2001), the possibility that the WWW can be used to reduce prejudices since learners are able to interact directly with members of the Deaf community. Marshall also points out that using web-enhanced components for instruction could further empower students by providing a variety of instructional materials geared to various learning styles and intelligence types. Wilitts (1992) observes that such technologies foster a learner-centered environment and encourages students to take responsibility for their own learning, thus turning learners into stakeholders. This is an important consideration for this action research project since Valencia Community College (VCC) is a Vanguard Learning College and has a strong commitment to learner-centered instruction. Sile (1998) and Burt (1999) indicate that learners need to be taught, specifically, how to use the technology and the importance of preparation, performance, and postmortems (review of what they have learned/done). Much of this could be done via PowerPoint presentations through WebCT, thus allowing the students repeated access to the original instructional content. Video vs CD Burt (1999) goes on to cite obvious advantages for using videos in the classroom: authentic language, visual stimuli, access both linguistic and cultural information, etc. She goes on to say that videos can be paused, stopped, rewound, and reviewed by individuals and/or groups. Bello, as cited in Burt (1999), notes that visual stimuli such as videos allow "learners to see facial expressions and body language at the same time the hear the stress, intonation and rhythm of the language." This is of paramount interest to sign language instructors. Unfortunately, videos, although marvelous useful for showcasing the visual nature of ASL, are not the most accessible of formats. However, transferring the visual data to a CD would allow both students and teachers to locate and retrieve the stored information effortlessly and efficiently and may be used both in and out of the classroom (Higgins, 1993). Even so, it should be noted that these technologies are still in their infancy (LeLoup & Ponterio, 1997), especially in terms of the visual components such as streaming video and real-time communications and not all computers are able to process the data effectively. The WWW provides access to hundreds of thousands of authentic documents pertaining to sign language, Deaf culture, Deaf history, and linguistics. In fact, so much material is available, in fact, that students will need to develop research skills in order to evaluate the quality of the information. This need readily complements an entry level college course as it promotes basic skills, cognitive processing skills, self management, and critical thinking.
Kitano & Kitano (no date) site a number of ways to develop language testing. Being able to offer assessments outside of the traditional classroom has the potential to free up a number of hours for target language practice. Depending on the design and intent of the assessment, it may be possible for students to refer to their notes, thus reducing and/or eliminating a certain amount of stress. Online assessments can be designed to provide immediate feedback, thereby increasing the learning curve (Hancock 1994; Angelo & Cross, 1995). On the other hand, Burnett (1994) warns that it can take several years to be comfortable with a computer technology as a part of the teacher’s toolkit. It is logical to assume that students, too, will experience a learning curve when a web-enhanced component is introduced. Marshall (2001), citing Gorski, reports that a significant digital divide does exist between the white majority and minority groups in terms of access to home computers. Fortunately, VCC has a strong commitment to technology and actively supports its faculty and students with technology centers, learning resource centers, computer labs, and individualized instruction. In spite of potential pitfalls, the technology currently exists which would allow English-based, non-face-to-face instructional content to presented as a web-enhancement for SPA 2612. The technology also exists, although it is far from perfected, to place limited amounts of visual communication (vocabulary, single sentences, short monologues and dialogs) on CDs. While not quite unanimous, the bulk of the research reviewed indicates that the use of such technologies would not harm and could, potentially, improve overall linguistic, cultural, and communicative competencies for students in SPA 2612.
Learners will benefit cognitively and linguistically if multimedia and web-enhanced technologies are used to present, supplement, and assess cultural, historical, and linguistic components of SPA 2612. In this section please provide also your rationale for this hypothesis. Hint: it should be based on material in your lit review. A combination of communicative language teaching and the use multimedia and web-enhanced technologies is warranted. Communicate language teaching allows for authentic, meaningful input in a "real-life" trial and error process (Galloway, 1993; Rodgers, 2001). Access to top-down, bottom-up approaches appeals to the cognitive processes of adult learners (Genesee, 2000). Using communicative language teaching in the classroom is further supported by a number of research studies which indicate that vocabulary is best taught, learned, and retained, in context. At the same time, using multimedia and web-enhancements outside the classroom can provide the adult second language learner with access to key linguistic and cultural issues that should not be discarded in favor of TL usage. Providing information via multi-media and web-enhancements allows the instructor to develop materials that could appeal to a wide variety of learners and learning styles which may or may not be different from his/her own. and can easily include explicit access to effective language learning strategies, including metacognitive, affective, social, cognitive, and coping skills, which would then be reinforced within the context of regular classroom activities (Willing, 1988; Oxford, 1989; Walqui, 2000). Although no strong conclusions could be drawn concerning self-assessment (Anderson, 2002; Thanasoulas, 2002) multimedia and web-enhancements, in combination with traditional classroom instruction, could provide students with both explicit instruction and the opportunity to self-assess in a meaningful and productive way. By identifying and prioritizing their own errors, students could be taught, explicitly, how to direct their own language learning endeavors and, in doing so, develop the potential to become life-long learners. To this end, the use of technologies such as multimedia, compact disks (CDs), and/or web-enhanced technologies such as Atlas or WebCT, appear to be acceptable formats since they emphasize cooperative learning, higher-level problem solving skills, interaction between students and teachers, and demonstrate adaptability to a variety of learning styles, especially in areas involving language skills and problem solving activities (Roblyer, 1989). The use of technology as a means of expanding the curriculum is especially appealing to the American Sign Language instructor. Unlike traditional second / foreign / world languages, ASL curriculums are still in their infancy and have not yet developed a ready arsenal of supportive materials aimed at multiple learning styles and diverse student bodies. By introducing such technologies a learner-centered environment is fostered and students are encouraged to take responsibility for their own learning, turning learners into stakeholders. This is an appealing and important consideration because VCC has a strong commitment to learner-centered instruction. The use of visual data over the WWW may not be a practical solution at this time. However, the development and use of vocabulary and assessment CDs, is a practical and achievable solution, which will enable adult learners locate and retrieve the stored information effortlessly and efficiently for use both in and out of the classroom. Technological skills will be honed by use of multimedia and web-enhancements, thus providing the learner with a secondary skill which compliments the student’s overall learning by supporting basic skills, cognitive processing skills, self management, and critical thinking. Offering assessments by way of multimedia and web-enhancements frees up a number of classroom hours, allowing for more TL practice in the classroom, and encourages students to learn in productive and meaningful ways, i.e. not rote memorization, but actual knowledge (Hancock 1994; Angelo & Cross, 1995). It will be important to keep all assessments as stress-free as possible since researchers (Burnett, 1994, Marshall 2001) warns that the digital divide is a real concern. Lastly the use of technology is supported by the nature of the Deaf community, itself. Traditionally face-to-face communication takes place in ASL, the language of the majority of the American and Canadian Deaf community. Traditionally, non face-to-face communication takes place in English. The use of English to present instructional materials via multi-media and web-enhanced technologies falls well with in the norms of Deaf culture. For the reasons cited above, the hypothesis is supported. The combination of communicative language teaching and the use multimedia and web-enhanced technologies will not harm and could, potentially, improve overall linguistic, cultural, and communicative competencies for students in SPA 2612.
Participants
The sample for this study (80 students) was selected from the total population (160 students) of American Sign Language 1 students at a large, multi-campus community college in Central Florida. Since this is an Action Research Project conducted by the instructor, students were not chosen at random. Rather, they were allowed to register as usual in an effort to create as "natural" a learning environment as possible. The instructor will be teaching four sessions during the Spring semester of 2003. Two sessions will be on the east campus, which serves 11,800 students, and two on the west campus, which serves 10,600 students. The instructor has had no prior contact with the students. SPA 2612 (American Sign Language I) is an entry level course with no prerequisite other than enrollment in Valencia Community College. VCC has an "open door" policy. The average student age is 24.5 years. Fully 20% percent use percent instead of % of the student body is under the age of 18, many of them are dual enrollment students from local high schools. Students over the age of 35 account for 12.5% percent of the student body. Students between the ages of 25-34 account for 19.4% percent. Of the remaining students 23.4% percent are aged 21-24 and 24.6% percent are aged 19-20. Full-time students account for 1/3 of the campus-wide population (34% percent), part-time students, 66% percent. Day classes (offered from 7 AM – 5 PM) account for 69% percent; evening classes, 31% percent. The student population is diverse and reflects the demographics of Central Florida. According to a recent internal report prepared for SACS, the ethnic distribution for 2000-2001 was as follows: Caucasian 59% percent, African American 14% percent; Asian/Pacific Islander 6% percent; Hispanic 19% percent, and Other 2% percent. The average class size is 21, but SPA 2612 is capped at 20. SPA 2612 presumes no prior knowledge of ASL, although each semester a small number of students (generally less than 25% percent) appear to have had some limited exposure to the Deaf and/or ASL. While the majority of students are highly motivated, a fairly small number (10-20% percent) report that they signed up hoping for an "easy A". Approximately half of the students report that they have not had positive experiences with foreign languages in the past. However, an equal number are either bilingual or have successfully studied the more traditional second languages (i.e. Spanish, French, etc.).
Instruments will be designed by the instructor based on Angelo & Cross’s Classroom Assessment Techniques and skills developed through Valencia’s faculty development program, Destinations, 2001. This is satisfactory since the purpose of these assessments is to evaluate the instructional program, not to make decisions concerning individuals. Students will be told about the nature of the project and will be given explicit instruction in the use of the Vocabulary CD and WebCT. Students may not work collaboratively on the "Weekly Assessments" or "Unit Questionnaires", but will be encouraged to work collaboratively in all other areas.
The experiment design is an Action Research Plan. Data for this Action Research Plan will be collected using both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Since each section of SPA 2612 contains a maximum of 20 students, the ability to generalization the result is unlikely. The research will, however, be purposeful, systematic, data-based, and evaluative. Flashlight technologies will be used to develop unit questionnaires (modified CATs). These questionnaires will collect anonymous feedback regarding the learning experience at the end of each lesson. Anonymity is assured in order to increase the probable validity of the data gathered. Unit questionnaire will be a modified version of a classroom assessment technique known as a "one minute paper". It will require the learner to use a rating scale to judge the overall effectiveness of the lesson. Short answers will be used to collect data on which aspects of the lesson were the most effective and least effective. Suggestions for improvement and/or revision will be sought. See Appendix 1. Online assessments will be collected weekly and graded. Their purpose is to assess student knowledge regarding linguistic, cultural, and communicative competencies. Each online assessment will consist of at least 10 items. For examples, see Appendix 2. Selected items from these weekly online assessments will be chosen for both mid-term and final exams. A comparison of responses taken the weekly assessments and mid-term and final exams will provide the raw data needed to determine whether or not the learners, as a whole, are successful in acquiring and retaining vocabulary and grammar constructs. Lastly, the researcher/instructor will maintain a log, charting the amount of time spent using the TL in the classroom. All instruments have been pre-tested on SPA 2612 students in the Summer (West Campus) and Fall (East Campus) 2002 classes.
All instruments will be scored accurately and consistently. Open ended items, if present, will be have at least one other person scoring them as a reliability check. After the instruments are scored, the data will be transferred to an Excel program and the scores (parameters and statistics) will be calculated for each of the four subgroups. The results of online assessments and the researcher/instructor’s log will be summarized, using descriptive statistics, and will measure the central tendency (mean), variability (standard deviation), relative position (Z scores), and relationship (Spearman rho will be used with ranked data; Pearson r will be used with scored data). Raw data regarding the results of the online assessments will be compiled and reviewed, quantitatively, to determine whether or not the linguistic and cultural components of SPA 2612 have been compromised. Raw data regarding the results of both formal and informal TL assessments will be compiled and reviewed, quantitatively, to determine whether or not communicative competencies have improved. The results will be summarized, using descriptive statistics. Raw data from the researcher/instructor’s log will be compiled and reviewed to determine, quantitatively, to what degree the TL was used with each course. The results will be summarized, using descriptive statistics. Lastly, raw data from the unit questionnaires (modified CATs) will be compiled and reviewed, quantitatively for the first question (rank) and qualitatively for the subsequent "free response" comments, to determine how the course – and most specifically the web-enhancements -- could be improved. Since the researcher/instructor will be the person who interprets the data, prediction of the results will be developed prior to administering the unit questionnaires. Results from each of the four SPA 2612 sections will be compared with the instructor prediction and with each of the other classes in order to maximize validity and reliability. Data analysis will consist of the response rate for each item as well as the total sample size and over all percentage of returns. Mortality (caused by students withdrawing from the course) is a strong concern. Attrition tends to run high in foreign language classes. Testing, especially in terms of apathy and/or boredom at having to answer the same questions at the end of every unit, is a lesser, but important, concern as well. Students will be treated as stakeholders from the beginning of the research project and Flashlight technologies will report who completed the activity, so that students may receive credit for completing the modified CATs, but will not link students names with the answers, thus protecting the student’s identity. Responses from the four subgroups (each SPA 2612 section) will be compared singly and collectively. The final report will group items into clusters rather than try to overwhelm the reader with an item by item account. It is expected that the students will express some concerns regarding the computer technologies in the beginning, but that they will adapt. It is also expected that students will misjudge their ability to identify significant problems early in the program, but that over the course of the semester, these skills will improve. Selecting a number of items from weekly online assessments to be used in both mid-term and final exams will give the researcher additional comparative data and should help increase both content validity and item reliability. Statistics – mean, standard deviation, etc. – will be compiled and compared both singly (intra-class) and collectively (inter-class). Lastly, data collected from this Action Research project will be correlated with similar action research projects conducted in 2001 and 2002. Retention data and final grades will be monitored to see if a pattern is emerging. The results of the qualitative data will be used to triangulate results of the quantitative data (from questionnaires and assessments) in order to determine whether or not the hypothesis has been proved, disproved, or needs further refinement. It is expected that the students will recognize that they are more confident and proficient in the target language. It is hoped that they will attribute this to the increased use of the target language in the classroom and the maintenance of cultural, historical, and linguistic content online. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anderson, Neil J. (2002) The role of metacognition in second language teaching and learning. Syracuse, NY: Eric Digest ED. Angelo, Thomas A. and K. Patricia Cross. (1995) Classroom Assessment Techniques: A Handbook for College Teachers 2nd Edition San Francisco: Josey-Bass, 1993. Brookfield, Steven D. (1995) Becoming a Critically Reflective Teacher. San Francisco Josey-Bass. Brown, Gillian, et. al. (1996). Performance & competence in second language acquisition. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Burnett, Gary. (1994) Technology as a Tool for Urban Classrooms. Syracuse, NY: Eric Digest ED368809. Burt, Miriam. (1999) Using videos with adult English language learners. Syracuse, NY: ERIC Digest ED434539. Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence (CREDE). (1997) From At-Risk to Excellence: Principles for practice. Syracuse, NY: Eric Digest. ED Center for Teaching and Learning Excellence. Retrieved March 23, 2002, from http://clte.asu.edu/ Cooperative Learning Center at the University of Minnesota. Retrieved Feb 19, 2002, from http://www.clcrc.com/ Cross, K. Patricia, Steadman, Mimi Harris Classroom Research: Implementing the Scholarship of Teaching San Francisco: Josey-Bass, 1996 Dulay, Heidi, et al. (1982) Language two. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press Dunkel, Patricia A. (1999) Considerations in developing and using computer-adaptive tests to assess second language proficiency. Syracuse, NY: Eric Digest ED 435202. Galloway, Ann. (1993) Communicative language teaching: An introduction and sample activities Syracuse, NY: Eric Digest ED. Hancock, Charles R. (1994) Alternative assessment and second language study: What and why? Syracuse, NY: Eric Digest ED 376695 Higgins, Chris. (1993) Computer-assisted language learning: Current programs and projects. Syracuse, NY: Eric Digest ED 355835. Johnson, David. Johnson, Roger. Smith, Karl. (1991) Active Learning: Cooperation in the College Classroom, 1998 Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company. Kitao, Kenji & Kitao, S. Kathleen. (no date) "language testing" on WWW. Downloaded from http://ilc2.doshisha.ac.jp/users/kkitao/online/www/kitao/int-test.htm. Kramsch, Claire. (1996) Proficiency plus: The next step. Syracuse, NY: Eric Digest ED. Krashen, Stephen D. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications. Torrance, CA: Laredo Publishing Company, Inc. Krashen, Stephen D. (1983). The natural approach. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Alemany Press, a division of Prentice Hall, Inc. Lee, J. F. (2000) Tasks And Communication In Language Classrooms. McGraw-Hill. Lee, J. F. & B. VanPatten. (1995). Making Communicative Language Happen. McGraw-Hill. LeLoup, Jean W. and Ponterio, Robert. (1997) Internet technologies for authentic language learning experiences. Syracuse, NY: Eric Digest ED 414770. LeLoup, Jean W. and Ponterio, Robert. (2000) Enhancing authentic language learning experiences though internet technology. Syracuse, NY: Eric Digest ED 442277. Marcos, Kathleen (1994) Internet for language teachers. Syracuse, NY: Eric Digest ED 376734. Marshall, Patricial L. (2001) Multicultural education and technology: Perfect pair or odd couple? Syracuse, NY: Eric Digest ED460129. Newby, Timothy J, et. al. (1996). Instructional technology for teaching and learning: Designing instruction, integrating computers, and using media. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill, a division of Prentice Hall, Inc. Nosich, Gerald M. Learning to Think Things Through: A Guide to Critical Thinking Across the Curriculum NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001 Omaggio-Hadley, Alice (1993). Teaching language in context. (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle. Oxford, Rebecca. (1898) Language learning strategies: An update. Syracuse, NY: Eric Digest ED. Oxford, Rebecca. (1898) The role of styles and strategies in second language learning. Syracuse, NY: Eric Digest ED 317087. Paulsen, Janice B. (2000). FL tech strategies that work. Lecture notes from Foreign Language Technology Strategies Seminar at Wake Forest University, retrieved November 26, 2002. http://www.richmond.edu/~japulsen/Fltech/Flteachseminar.html Roblyer, M. D. (1989) The impact of microcomputer-based instruction on teaching and learning: A review of recent research. Syracuse, NY: Eric Digest ED315063. Rodgers, Theodore S. (2001) Language Teaching Methodology. Syracuse, NY: Eric Digest ED Sile, Kathleen Flannery. (1998) Using the World Wide Web with adult ESL learners. Syracuse, NY: Eric Digest ED427555. Stone, LeeAnn. (1991) Task-based activities: Making the language laboratory interactive. Syracuse, NY: Eric Digest ED343407. Thanasoulas, Dimitiros. (2002) Motivation and motivating in the foreign language classroom. The Internet TESL Journal. Retrieved November 28, 2002. http://iteslj.org. Valencia Community College, SACS 2002. Retrieved December 17, 2002. http://valenciacc.edu/lci/SACSalt/sacs1.htm Valencia Community College, Alysse Rasmussen, VCC ASL Classes, developed Summer & Fall 2002 http://valencia.eduprise.com/SCRIPT/502SPA2612_Rasmussen/scripts/serve_home Wilcox, Sherman. (1991) Teaching ASL as a second language. Syracuse, NY: Eric Digest ED343408. Walqui, Aida. (2000) Contextual Factors in Second Language Acquisition. Syracuse, NY: Eric Digest ED444381. Willetts, Karen. (1992) Technology and second language learning. Syracuse, NY: Eric Digest ED 350883.
Sample Unit Questionnaires (Modified CATs)
a) (low) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) 4 e) 5 (high)
Sample Assessment
UNDERSTAND UNDERSTAND UNDERSTAND
UNDERSTAND UNDERSTAND UNDERSTAND UNDERSTAND UNDERSTAND UNDERSTAND UNDERSTAND UNDERSTAND UNDERSTAND UNDERSTAND UNDERSTAND
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